Doctrine of the Mean

A. The Text

1. What Heaven confers is called "nature."

Accordance with this nature is called the Tao.

Cultivating the Tao is called "education."

That which is called Tao cannot be separated from for an instant. What can be separated from is not the Tao. Therefore the

Superior Man is cautious in the place where he is not seen, and apprehensive in the place where he is not heard. Nothing is more

visible than the hidden, and nothing is more apparent than the subtle. Therefore the Superior Man is cautious when he is alone.

When joy, anger, sorrow and pleasure have not yet arisen, it is called ch'ung (equilibrium, centrality, mean). When they arise to

their appropriate levels, it is called "harmony." Ch'ung is the great root of all-under-heaven. "Harmony" is the penetration of the

Tao through all-under-heaven. When the mean and harmony are actualized, Heaven and Earth are in their proper positions, and

the myriad things are nourished.

B. The Commentary

2. Confucius said: "The Superior Man actualizes the mean, the inferior man goes against it. The Superior Man actualizes the mean

because he is always with it; the inferior man's contrarity is do to his heedlessness."

3. How far-reaching the mean is! That is why those who are able to keep it for long are few.

4. Confucius said: "I know why the Tao is not practiced. The intelligent go beyond it and the dull do not reach it. I know why the

Tao is not manifested. The 'good' go beyond it and the unworthy do not reach it. There is no one who does not eat or drink, but

there are few who really have 'taste.'"

5. Confucius said: "What a pity! The way is not followed."

6. Confucius said: "(Emperor) Shun was so wise! He liked to question people and delighted in listening to everyday speech. He

would cover people's bad points and disclose their goodness. He snatched up their excesses and facilitated their balanced nature

for the benefit of all. It was in this way that Shun made himself into what he was."

7. Confucius said: "Everybody says 'I know,' but they are driven forward, becoming ensnared in traps and falling into pits without

knowing how to avoid them. Everybody says 'I know,' but in intending the actualization of the mean, they are not able to stay with

it for a full month."

8. Confucius said: "(Yen) Hui was the kind of person who grasped the mean in such a way that, attaining to a certain goodness, he

would clasp it firmly and never lose it."

9. Confucius said: "You might be able to put in order the whole country, kingdoms and clans; decline rank and merit-pay and tread

on bare swords, yet still be incapable of actualizing the mean."

[Comment] The performance of phenomenal wonders in incomparable with the task of actualizing the mean.

10. Tzu-lu asked about strength. Confucius said: "Do you mean the strength of the South, the strength of the North, or the strength

of self-mastery? To be broadminded and gentle in teaching and not rashly punish wrong-doing is the strength of the South. The

Superior Man abides in this. To be able to make a bed of weapons and armor and die without grief--this is the strength of the

North. The forceful are at home in this.

Therefore the Superior Man is harmonious without getting sloppy. How correct his strength is! He stands in the center without

leaning to either side. How correct his strength is! When the Tao is manifest in the land, he is changeless in his support of it. How

correct his strength is! When the Tao is not manifest in the land, he will not sell himself out, even until death. How correct his

strength is!"

11. Confucius said: "When you study the occult and perform miracles, later generations always tell about it. This I won't do."

"As a Superior Man, to go according to the Tao and abandon it half way--this I certainly cannot do."

"Then there is the Superior Man, who depends on his actualization of the mean, hides himself from the world such that he is

unseen and unknown, and has no regrets about it. Only the sage can do this."

12. The Tao of the Superior Man functions everywhere, yet is inconspicuous. Average men and women, even if ignorant, know

something of it; yet even the sage cannot know it completely. Average men and women, even though lacking in ability are able to

practice to some extent; yet even the sage cannot practice it perfectly.

As vast as the universe is, people still have dissatisfaction. When the Superior Man calls it "vast," he means it is too large to be

grasped. When he speaks of its smallness, he means that it is something that cannot be further broken down.

The Book of Odes says: "The hawk flies high in the sky; the fish dances in the deep." This means that its height and its depth are

both observable. The Tao of the Superior Man starts with the common people, but in its absoluteness, it is observed throughout the

universe.

13. Confucius said: "The Tao is not something separate from man. If you practice a Tao that is apart from man, this cannot the

Tao. The Book of Odes says:

Carving axe handles

One after another

They differ little from the original sample

Taking one to carve another.

When you compare them,

There are still differences.

Therefore the Superior Man treats people as human beings, and once they have corrected themselves, he lets them be. Being

sincere and fair to all, though this is different from the Tao, it are not far from it. This means "not doing to others what you don't

want done to yourself." There are four general ways that this can be characterized, one of which I[1] have been able to fully

practice:

(1) Treating my father as I expect my son to treat me.

(2) Treating my ruler as I expect my ministers to treat me.

(3) Treating my older brothers as I expect my younger brothers to treat me.

(4) Treating my friends as I expect my friends to treat me.

In the putting into practice of virtue or the taking care of speech, if there is somewhere where I am deficient, I certainly endeavor

further. If there is excess, I do not dare to merely expend it. His words reflecting his actions, his actions reflecting his words--how

can this Superior Man not be sincere through and through?

14. The Superior Man acts accepting his own situation. He does not hope to be somewhere else. When he is in a position of fame

and fortune, he acts within fame and fortune. When in a position of poverty and low status, he acts within poverty and low status.

When dwelling with uncultured tribes, he acts as if he is with uncultured tribes. When he is in stress and difficulty, he acts from

within stress and difficulty. There is no place where the Superior Man is not completely himself.

When in a high position, he does not step on those below him. When in a low position, he does not drag down those above him.

Correcting yourself and not expecting things from others, you will not create resentments. You will not resent Heaven above, nor

blame men below.

The Superior Man abides in change and awaits his destiny. The inferior man practices manipulation and prays for luck.

The Master said: "Practicing archery is like practicing to be a Superior Man. When you miss the bulls-eye, you look for the error

in yourself."

15. The Tao of the Superior Man can be compared to traveling: To go far, you must start from close by. It can be compared to

climbing: To go high, you must start from down low. The Book of Odes says:

The Happy union with wife and children

Is like the music of lutes and harps

When siblings all get along

The harmony is entrancing.

So make your household good

And enjoy your wife and children.

The Master said: "Husband and wife should follow each other."

16. Confucius said: "The overabundance of the power of spiritual beings is truly amazing! Looking for them, they cannot be seen.

Listening for them, they cannot be heard. There is nothing that they do not embody. They cause the people of the world to fast for

purification, and wear beautiful clothes in order to participate at the sacrifices. They are overflowing, seeming to be above,

seeming to be on the left and on the right. The Book of Odes says: 'Trying to investigate the spirits, we cannot reach them. How

could we possibly grasp them with our thoughts?' The manifestation of the subtle and the inconcealability of sincerity is like this."

17. What a good son was Shun (the sage emperor)! His virtue was that of a sage, he was venerated as an emperor. His wealth

included everything within the four seas. He is sacrificed to in the ancestral temple, and his sons and grandsons have preserved his

name. Therefore we can say that the greatly virtuous always attain their appropriate position, always receive their proper reward,

always get their recognition and are always long-lived.

We can also know that Heaven develops each thing according to its preparation. Thus, Heaven nourishes the growing sprout, and

throws down the leaning tree. The Book of Odes says:

Joyful is the Prince

With the power of his own correctness

He harmonized those far and near

He received his reward from Heaven

Who protected him, helped him

And gave him the mandate

Which he in turn enhanced.

Thus, the greatly virtuous always receive the Mandate of Heaven.

18. Confucius said: "The only one who didn't suffer from grief was King Wen, since his father was King Chi and his son was King

Wu. His father set him up and his son continued his ways. King Wu merely extended what had been handed down from Kings

T'ai, Chi and Wen. Once he put on his armor, he took control of the whole realm and he never failed to live up to the great

reputation the people accorded to him. He was respected as an emperor; his wealth included all within the four seas. The

ancestral halls make offerings to him, and his sons and grandsons have preserved his name."

King Wu received the Mandate of Heaven late in life. The Duke of Chou consummated the virtue of Wen and Wu. Following in

the ways of Kings T'ai and Chi, he sacrificed to the former princes with the ceremony proper to an emperor, and spread this

ceremony to all the nobles, ministers, officers and the common people. If the father was a minister and the son an officer, then the

funeral ceremony would be for a minister, and the sacrifices for an officer. If the father was an officer and the son was a

minister, he would be buried as an officer and sacrificed to as a minister. The one year's mourning applied up to the ministers, but

the three-year mourning applied up the emperor. In the mourning for parents, there was no distinction according to class.

19. Confucius said: "How completely King Wu and the Duke of Chou actualized their filial piety! Through filial piety, they

correctly passed down the wills of their forefathers and correctly transmitted their works. In spring and autumn, they cleaned the

ancestral temple, laid out the sacrificial vessels, dressed up in the ceremonial outfit and prepared the seasonal foods."

Using the ritual of the ancestral temple, they ordered the ancestral lineages.

By rank, they distinguished high and low classes; by works, they distinguished goodness.

By having the lower classes offer the toast to the upper classes, they kept the lower classes involved.

By hair color, they distinguished seniority. Each taking their positions, they carried out the ritual, played the music, respected the

venerable, loved their relatives. They served the dead as if they were alive, and they served those not present as if they were

there. Herein they brought filial piety to its highest level.

They used the Winter and Summer festival to make offerings to the Lord-on-High, and used the rituals on the ancestral temple to

make offerings to the ancestors. He who could completely disclose the meaning of the Winter and Summer sacrifices, and the

great Imperial sacrifice, could govern the country as easily as if he were pointing to the palm of his hand."

20. The Duke of Ai asked about government. Confucius said: "The records of the governments of Wen and Wu are on the ancient

tablets. When they had the right people, the government functioned, and when they didn't have the right people, government failed.

When people are right, the government flourishes; when the ground is right, plants flourish; the governments of Wen and Wu

flourished like fast-growing weeds."

Therefore, the skillful handling of government is contingent upon having the right people. You attract the right people by your own

character. You cultivate your character through the Tao and you manifest the Tao by means of jen. Jen is "humanity"[2] and its

most obvious function is in love for relatives. "Justice" means "setting things right" and its most obvious function is in venerating the

Good. The differing levels in loving relatives and venerating the good are expressed through propriety.

Thus, if your rank is low, and you do not have the support of those in power, you cannot hope to have an influence on

government. Therefore the Superior man cannot but cultivate his character.

Wanting to cultivate his character, he cannot do it without serving his parents. Wanting to serve his parents, he cannot do it

without understanding others. Wanting to understand others, he cannot do it without understanding Heaven.

There are five pervasive (ta) relationships in this world, which are carried out in 3 ways. The relationships are those between

ruler and minister, father and son, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, and between friends. The three ways of

practice are wisdom, jen and courage, but they are practiced in unison.

Some are born knowing it; some know it by learning and some have to struggle to know it. Nonetheless, the knowledge is the

same.

Some practice it by being comfortable within it; some practice it by benefitting from it; and some have to struggle to practice it.

But when the practice is perfected, it is the same."

Confucius said: "Loving study, you approach wisdom; loving energetic practice, you approach jen. Understanding shame, you

approach courage. If you understand these three, you know how to polish your character; knowing how to polish your character,

you know how to handle others; knowing how to handle others, you know how to govern a state or clan."

In general, in the handling of the realm, a state or a clan, there are nine basic patterns of treatment. These are: polishing your own

character; venerating the Good; caring for your relatives; respecting the high ministers; making the lower ministers feel like they

have a significant role; treating the common people as your children; making the artisans feel welcome; treating foreign guests

gently and embracing the nobles.

Polishing your character, you set up your own Tao. Venerating the Good, you are not deluded. Caring for your relatives, then your

fathers, elder and younger brothers will not resent you. Respecting the high ministers, you will not make foolish mistakes. Making

the lower ministers feel like they are part of it, they will regard propriety with seriousness. Treating the common people as your

children, they will work hard. Making the artisans feel welcome, there will be plenty of commerce. Being gentle to guests from

afar, people will flock to you from all directions. If you embrace the nobility, the people will have a healthy fear of them.

Fasting in ceremonial dress, not acting against the norms of propriety; this is how you polish your character. Letting go of slander,

freeing yourself from lust, disregarding wealth and prizing virtue: This is how you promote goodness. Respecting their rank, paying

them well, going along with their likes and dislikes: this is the way to take care of your relatives. Giving them enough officers to

dole out their responsibilities: this is the way to encourage the high ministers. To reward well trustworthiness and loyalty: this is the

way to encourage the lower officers. Employing the people around their own farming schedules and taxing them lightly: this is the

way to encourage the people. Daily and monthly examining their works and giving merit where due: this is the way to encourage

the artisans. Sending out envoys to meet foreign visitors and bestowing kindness and pity on the handicapped: this is the way to be

gentle to visitors from afar. To renew their broken lineages, restore their vanquished states, quell their rebellions and protect them

from danger; giving them rich presents and expecting little in return: this is how you embrace the nobles.

While altogether there are this nine patterns of treatment, there is a single way to carry out all of them. In all affairs, if you plan

ahead you can be successful, and if you don't plan ahead, you will fail. If you are prepared before you speak, you won't be

tongue-tied. If you are prepared before you begin a job, you won't have complications. If you are prepared before you act, you

won't have to be sorry. If you are prepared before teaching, you won't run out of material.

Again, if you are in a position of low rank, and you have no influence above, you will have no way of governing people. Even

though there is a way of influencing superiors, if your friends don't trust you, you won't be able to influence superiors. Even though

there is a way of gaining the trust of your friends, if you have discord with your relatives, you will not be trusted by your friends.

Even though there is a way of having harmony with your relatives, if your character is not sincere, you will have discord with your

relatives. Even though there is a way to make your character sincere, if you have not awakened to your goodness, you will not be

able to make your character sincere.

Sincerity is the Way of Heaven. Making oneself sincere is the Way of Man. If you can be perfectly sincere without effort,

without a mindfulness to its attainment, and walk embracing the Middle Way, you are a sage.

If you are working at making yourself sincere, you must find your goodness and hold fast to it. You must study it broadly,

investigate it in detail, deliberate on it carefully, discern it clearly and practice it universally. Where there is a lack in your

understanding, or your study has not yet reached the point where it is effective, don't just leave it. When there is something you

have investigated, or investigated but not understood, don't just leave it. When there is something that you have not yet discerned,

or discerned but not yet clarified, don't just leave it. When there is something you have not yet practiced, or have practiced, but not

yet universally, don't just leave it.

If someone else gets it in one try, I will try one hundred times. If someone else gets it in ten tries, I will try one thousand times. If

you are able to follow this Way, then even if you are stupid, you will become enlightened. Even if you are weak, you will become

strong.

21. The enlightenment that comes from sincerity is our own nature. The sincerity that comes from enlightenment is called

"education." If you are sincere you will be enlightened. If you are enlightened, you will be sincere.

22. Only the perfectly sincere person can actualize his own essence. Actualizing his own essence, he can fully actualize the

essence of others. Fully actualizing the essence of others, he can fully actualize the essence of all things. Being able to fully

actualize the essence of all things, he can assist Heaven and Earth in their transformation and sustenance. Able to assist in

Heaven and Earth's transformation and sustenance, he forms a trinity with Heaven and Earth.

23. Those of the next level straighten out their own twistedness. Being straightened they can possess sincerity. Having sincerity,

they can give form to their character. Their character having form, their sincerity becomes manifest. Being manifest it is luminous,

being luminous it can function. Functioning, it changes; changing, it transforms. Only the most fully actualized sincerity is able to

transform people and things.

24. Once you are in the Path of fully actualized sincerity, you have foreknowledge of things. When a nation or clan is about to rise

up, there are always omens of their fortune. When a nation or clan is about to fall, there are always omens of their misfortune. It

can be seen in the milfoil stalks,[3] tortoise shells[4] and in the movements of the body. When good or evil fortune is imminent, the

perfectly sincere person will know without obstruction. With fully actualized sincerity, you are like a god.

25. Sincerity is just 'perfecting' and the Tao is just 'following.' Sincerity is the beginning and end of all things. Without sincerity

there is nothing. Thus the Superior Man values the process of "becoming-sincere." But sincerity is not "just-perfecting"; it also

means "perfecting all things." To perfect yourself, you need jen. To perfect others, you need wisdom. The virtue of our nature is

that it is none other than the Tao by which inner and outer are merged. Thus we can always use it to set things right.

26. Therefore, fully actualized sincerity is ceaseless. Ceaseless, it is eternal. Eternal, it is apparent. Apparent, it is far-reaching.

Far-reaching, it is vast and deep. Vast and deep, it is high and bright. Since it is vast and deep, it can support all things. Since it is

high and bright, it can cover all things. Since it is far-reaching and long-lasting, it can accomplish all things. Vastness and depth

refer to the Earth. Highness and brightness refer to Heaven. Far-reaching and long-lasting refer to limitlessness. In this way, it is

manifest without being seen, it changes without moving, and accomplishes without effort. The Tao of Heaven and Earth can be

perfectly expressed in a single phrase: "Its appearance as things is not repeated; therefore its production of things is unfathomable

(or 'bottomless')." The Tao of Heaven and Earth is vast and deep, high and bright, far-reaching and long-lasting.

Now, Heaven is made of many single lights. But they are infinite; the sun, moon and stars are all suspended in it, and it covers the

myriad things.

The Earth is but a collection of numerous handfuls of dirt. But it is vast and deep. It supports Mt. Hua and Mt. Yueh without

feeling their weight; it contains the seas and rivers without spilling a drop. It supports all things.

The mountains are made of many small stones. But they become high and broad. Plants and trees grow on them, the birds and

beasts live on them, and rare gems are stored within them.

The waters are mere collections of many teaspoons. But their depth is unfathomable. Tortoises, alligators, dragons, fish and

turtles live there, and all sorts of gems grow there.

The Book of Odes says:

The Mandate of the Heavenly Principle

Has no end to its depth.

This is why we call Heaven, "Heaven."

It also says:

Was it not apparent,

The purity of King Wen's virtue?

This is how Wen made his own character--unceasing in purity.

27. How great is the Tao of the sage! Superabundant, it develops all things, extending up to Heaven. How excellent it is! It

embraces the three hundred rules of ceremony, and the three thousand rules of conduct; it waits for the right person and then

functions. Hence it is said: "If you do not perfect your virtue, the perfect Tao cannot be actualized." Therefore the Superior Man

esteems his virtuous nature and follows the path of inquiry, extending himself in breadth and greatness, penetrating all subtleties,

penetrating its height and brilliance, following the course of the actualization of the Mean. He reviews the old and learns the new,

thickening his character through the valorization of propriety.

Therefore he abides in a position of power without arrogance, and abides in a low position without being rebellious. When the

government is just, he can speak and be praised. When the government is wicked, he can conceal himself by silence. The Book of

Odes says:

His intelligence and wit

Were his protection.

Does this not reflect the same meaning?

28. Confucius said: "To be ignorant and like to act as you will; to be of low rank and ignore all the rules; to be living in the present

and be following the norms of the past: all these will bring you trouble."

If you are not the emperor, you cannot determine the rules of propriety, set weights and measures, or create ideographs. In the

present realm, carriages have the same axle-widths, documents are written with the same characters and people follow the same

norms of conduct.

But even if you are emperor, if you lack virtue, you cannot presume to create ritual or music. And even if you possess sufficient

virtue, but you are not in the position of emperor, you cannot presume to create ritual or music.

Confucius said: "I can describe the Hsia rituals, but the documents from Ch'i cannot verify it. I have learned the Yin rituals, and

they are still preserved in the Sung. I have learned the Chou rituals, which are still in use. I follow the Chou."

29. In ruling the realm there are three essentials through which one can lessen his mistakes.[5]

If you are in a position of rank, even if you are good, if your goodness is not evident, you will not be trusted. Not being trusted, the

people will not follow you. If you lack rank, then you will not be respected. Lacking respect, you will not be trusted. Without trust

the people will not follow you.[6]

Therefore in the Superior Man's practice of his Way, he starts with himself and then manifests his character to all the people,

such that when he contemplates the ways of the three former sage-kings, he cannot feel any shame. He is established between

Heaven and Earth without any discord. He presents himself before the spirits of his ancestors without doubting. He waits for a

hundred generations for a sage to appear without confusion.

If you can present yourself to the ancestral spirits without doubting, you know Heaven. If you can wait a hundred generations for

the appearance of a sage, you know human beings. Therefore, the people regard the movement of the Superior Man as the Way

of the world. They regard his actions as the norm of the world. They regard his words as the pattern for the world. When they are

away from him, they long for him. When they are near him, they never get tired of him. The Book of Odes says:

When he is away, he is not hated.

When he is here, he is not disliked.

In every situation, from morning to night,

Their praise of him is unceasing.

There has never been a Superior Man who gained rapid recognition from the world and who was not like this.

30. Confucius transmitted the legacy of (sage-emperors) Yao and Shun and modeled his character on that of (sage-kings) Wen

and Wu. He was ruled by the Heavenly seasons from above, and combined the Earth and Waters below. He was like Heaven and

Earth, which have nothing they do not support, and nothing they do not cover. His function was like the revolution of the four

seasons, the alternation of sun and moon. He nourishes the myriad things and they grow up together without harming each other,

and they follow their courses simultaneously without interfering with each other. His smaller power is like the rivers and streams.

His great power is seen in deep transformations. This is why Heaven and Earth are called "great."

31. Only the perfect sage of the realm possesses the acumen, sharpness and insight necessary for overseeing things, and at the

same time has enough generosity, open-mindedness, warmth and flexibility to accept everything. He also has enough energy,

strength, firmness and gumption to maintain what he has and enough self-awareness, gravity, centeredness and correctness to be

respected and enough refinement, principle, depth and analytical ability to discriminate.

Extremely vast, unfathomably deep--he uses his abilities according to the situation. As vast as Heaven, as deep as an abyss, when

he shows himself, there are none who do not respect him. When he speaks, there are none who do not believe him. When he acts,

there are not who do not appreciate him. Therefore you can hear his name overflowing from the central kingdoms out to the

uncivilized regions. Wherever boats and wagons go, wherever human power can reach to; in every place supported by the Earth;

those places illuminated by the sun and moon; wherever dew and frost fall; wherever there are breathing beings, there are none

who do not respect him and cherish him. Therefore he is associated with "Heaven."

32. Only that person who has fully actualized sincerity is able to adjust the strings of the Great Net of the World; is able to

establish himself in the Great Root of the World; is able to understand the transformations and the nurturing of Heaven and Earth.

So sincere is his jen; so unfathomable is his depth; so vast is his spaciousness.

Who is able to understand this, but one who has the firm, acute, luminous sagely intelligence--who is permeated with Heavenly

Virtue?

33. The Book of Odes says:

She covered her brocade gown

With a plain robe.

She did not want to show off her finery. Therefore the Superior Man acts in a way such that he conceals himself, yet every day

gains in luminosity. The inferior man shows himself and every day loses luminosity. The Way of the Superior Man is tasteless, yet

you never get sick of it. Simple, yet refined, warm-hearted yet principled. He knows the closeness of the distant, knows the origin

of customs. He knows the manifestation of the subtle and can enter into virtue. The Book of Odes says:

Though the fish dive to the bottom

They can be seen.

Hence the Superior Man, finding no perversity within himself, has no evil in his intentions. Those things that the Superior Man is

unable to attain to are exactly the things that others cannot perceive. The Book of Odes says:

While in your own room,

You should not be ashamed if it were

Opened to the world.

Therefore the Superior Man does not move, and yet is respected. He does not speak, and yet is believed. The Book of Odes says:

Make your offerings without words,

And there will never be any disagreement.

Therefore the Superior Man receives no awards, yet the people promote him. He is not angry, yet they are more in awe of him

than they are of lethal weapons. The Book of Odes says:

Only if you don't show it

Can you develop virtue.

All the princes are constrained by this.

Therefore the Superior Man, through his generosity and courtesy, pacifies the realm. The Book of Odes says:

I cherish shining virtue

Not big noises and flashy colors.

Confucius said: "In terms of transforming people, sounds and appearances don't amount to much." The Book of Odes says:

Virtue is as light as a hair.

Yet even a hair possesses the great principles. In the functions of Supreme Heaven, there are no sounds or smells. It is "perfect."

Notes

1. Confucius

2. There is a pun here, since "humanity" is also pronounced jen. Thus, in Chinese, this phrase says "jen is jen."

3. Used in I-Ching divination.

4. An ancient method of divination where tortoise shells were heated over a fire until they cracked. The cracks were read

according to their patterns to diagnose a situation.

5. At this point in the text, one would expect a clear enumeration of three essential points. But following this are only a set of two,

followed by a set of four. James Legge and Wing-tsit Chan, following Chu-hsi, say that these three essentials should be the

ceremonies, regulations and formation of ideographs mentioned in the prior passage. This judgement may be questioned, since in

Confucian texts, errors in rulership are generally shortcomings in the personal character or errors in judgement on moral issues.

Since these are three essentials of rulership, we might look to the end of section 20 above, which says: "Loving study, you

approach wisdom; loving energetic practice, you approach jen. Understanding shame, you approach courage. If you understand

these three, you know how to polish your character; knowing how to polish your character, you know how to handle others;

knowing how to handle others, you know how to govern a state or clan."

6. This is another passage which seems to be deficient in the necessary contextual background for solid interpretation. But again,

I must differ with Chu-hsi's interpretation which reads shang ( ) as "former times" and its antonym hsia ( ) as "low position."

Since shang and hsia are so clearly contrasted here in consecutive sentences, it seems much more sensible and natural to read

them antonymically. Furthermore, though to read shang as "formerly" or "antiquity" may be possible in Classical Chinese, we

rarely see it used in that way in the Analects, Great Learning or Doctrine of the Mean. The two terms almost always mean

"superior" or "above" and "inferior" or "below," usually in terms of societal rank, or level of personal enlightenment.